'To let' as a way of providing facility
To begin with, let us look at some examples to show the use of the Hoyloy morpheme [hO\-] for which the English counterpart is 'to let'.
1. [hO_\gwa=(+)/Rip=(+/-)|lai'] 'Let me come in';
2. [qO"mNg+|e' bo_ai"/hO_\lan=/Rip=(+/-)|lai'//lan" tzo(/e)"lan" Rip=(+/-)|lai']
'The doorkeeper won't let us go inside. Let's go inside for ourselves';
3. [mai"/hO_\hit=tzyaQ"/qau=(+)a" tsut-|ki'] 'Don't let that dog go out' ;
4. [u_/tzit_haNg_/dtai_tzi' Steve bo_ai"/hO_\Candy tzai-ya~" ]
'There is one thing Steve doesn't want to let Candy know about'.
As illustrated in the above examples, [hO\-]* has the meaning of providing someone with facility to do something. Out of this meaning are derivative usages which will be covered in the rest of this article.
*There is a kanji of identical pronunciation in Hoyloy, which has the door leaf as its original meaning (Bernard Karlgren 1923: Analytical Dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese, p.57). If someone is given facility to use the door of a house, he or she will be let go inside or out of the house. Therefore, the morpheme of 'to let' and the morpheme of 'door leaf' seem to be related. It is reasonable to believe the meaning of door leaf as represented by this kanji came from an older usage referring to the covered entrance of a hiding place, which later on was replaced by the door of a house. Both usages suggest the purpose of providing facility.
'To give' as a way of providing
The association of providing something such as a gift with providing some facility gives rise to the derivative meaning of 'to give' from the morpheme of 'to let'. This is demonstrated in two groups of examples as follows.
Group one:
5. [ma-sa=OQ wi"\O+:sa=kaQ* qya"/tzit_bpun=(+)/tseQ- hO-|gwa']
'Masao sent a book to me from Osaka';
6. [laNg'(-)i-(=) ma_\u_qya"/hO._gwa"] 'Yea, he sent (one) to me also';
7. [tza-bO=(+)laNg+ dto"/pun= hO_\dtj= tzyaQ=(+/-)] 'The woman poured some soup
with food residue for pigs to eat.
Group two:
8. [qam-ma" nNg_lyap_a=/hO-|gwa'(-)//ho"|bo'] 'Give me two or some tangerines, OK?'
(lit.: Tangerine, two or some pieces be let me, OK?);
9. [m_taNg-/hO-|i'] 'Don't (as a considerate proposal) give him/her;
10. [tzit_lyap_/hO-|i' dtyoQ_ho"] 'Just let him/her (have) one (piece)'.
*Transcription of the Japanese personal name 'Masao' and the place name 'Osaka' given here is based on
pronunciation in Hoyloy. Some Taiwanese who speak Japanese may have them pronounced in Japanese.
The receiver of what given is said to be in dative case which is indicated by word order or the preposition 'to' in English. In the English translation for sentences of group one, the morpheme [hO\-] is replaced by the preposition 'to' or 'for'. In the Hoyloy texts it serves, while appearing as the second of a pair of verbs, a similar function indicating who that benefits from the action represented by the preceding verb. This indication shows that the implication of benevolence in providing facility is also recognized in providing something such as a gift.
One can easily see the Hoyloy word [hO.-] is only a partial equivalent to the English word 'to give' and vice versa. For one thing, in the phrase with this Hoyloy verb* the ensuing slot is constantly occupied by the receiver of what is given. When what given is topicalized, it is moved to the front of the the vebal phrase as examplified by sentence 8. The structure for such a sentence as 'I gave the book to him' in English must be rendered into Hoyloy such as displayed by either of the sentences 11a and 11b given below.
*This Hoyloy morpheme [hO.-] meaning 'to give' is an interminative verb which may only be used in combination with its object of dative case, namely receiver of what given.
11a. [gwa" qa_\tzit=bpun=(+)/tse' hO-|i']; 11b. ?[gwa" hO_/i- tzit=bpun=(+)/tse']; 12a. [gwa" hO_/i- tzit_bpun=(+)/tse']; 12b. ?[gwa" qa_\tzit_bpun=(+)/tse' hO-|i'].
Take note that the form of sentence 11b is hardly used because what given is marked with a demonstrative construction [tzit=bpun"] ('this' and 'numerative for books'). But for 'I gave a book to him', the form of sentence 12a is better than sentence 12b.
Besides that, this usage for the meaning of 'to give' is often found to take place inside a subordinate clause as illustrated by sentences of group one. So often that its use in a main clause seems to be an outgrowth from the subordination. The subordination furthermore opens the way to another function for yielding result of an action to be explained later in this article.
The morpheme [hO\-] as used for the meaning illustrated in sentences of group two is treated as a word, an interminative verb to be written as [hO.-], which doesn't stand alone in speech and assumes no basic tone except for the case of rolling-off format. When it is used in subordinate clauses, however, we can not decisively tell whether it is a verb or a preposition serving as a dative or benefactive case marker
Developed usage of 'to give'
In the primary usages of 'to give' as shown by the examples of previous section, givers and receivers are persons and objects given are physically tangible such as a tangerine and a book. But primary usages are susceptive for developed usage. Some examples are given below for illustration of the developed usages of the morpheme for 'to give' in Hoyloy.
13. [Judy dtNg"|lai' hO_\dtaK_qe- tzin-/hwa~-hi"] 'The return of Judy gives great
joy to everybody', or, '...makes everybody very joyful';
14. [in-wi_\bo_ai"/ki"/haK_hau-//Tom hO_\in-/lau_bu" sit=bONg-] 'Because he
doesn't want to go to school, Tom gives his mother disappointment', or
'...makes his mother feel disappointed';
15. [Greg dti_de=\tzau=/ho_\qau=(+)a" Rip-] 'Greg is running to let the dog run
after (him)'.
For sentences 13 and 14, we would rather interprete the morpheme as 'to make' in Englsih. In sentence 15 it can be interpreted as either 'to make' or 'to let'. We can also consider this as an example of yielding intended result of an action.
Modified function with 'to let' for passive construction
As we have seen so far, different senses of the proto-meaning 'to let' arise from different syntactical structures. We will now turn to the morpheme [hO\-] of 'to let' modified in syntactic function for passive construction. Before our analytical description of the passive construction with this morpheme, I would like to show you how some of the passive sentences in English are rendered into Hoyloy.
16. 'John was given a prize' [laNg'(-)\hO_/John tzit_bpit=/tzyOng=(+)qim=(-)]
lit. 'Someone/people gave John a prize';
17. 'All my money was stolen' [gwa=e-(_)/tzi~+ hO_laNg'(-)\tau-teQ_/lyau=(+)lyau"];
18. 'That car was destroyed by fire' [hit=dtai-(_)/tsya= hO_\h(/w)e" hwi=(+)dtyau-ki'];
19. 'The thief was caught by the police' [tsat_a" hO_\qi(E)Ng"tsat- lyaQ=(+/-)|dtyoQ-];
20. 'This house was built three years ago'
[tzit=qi(E)Ng-/tsu' dti_\sa~-ni-(_)tzi(E)Ng+ ki"|e'];
21. 'The job was well done' [kaNg-ke(/j)' tzo(/e)"lyau" tzin-/swi=(+)kwi'].
Sentence 16 is one of many instances of English passive construction where there can be no equivalent in Hoyloy. In sentences 20 and 21, the agent who did the job was implicit or perhaps unknown and thus the omission of the portion for introducing the agent. But the similar case in sentence 17 is treated differently in Hoyloy, using an indefinite personal pronoun [laNg\+] (someone) as the agent of the stealing. Note also that, while internal change of form such as from 'build' to 'built' or 'do' to 'done' is not attainable in Hoyloy, the verb compound of [ki"] (to build) with [e\+] (what has been done) and [tzo(/e)'] (to work) with [lyau"] (finished) serves similarily as the transformation of 'to build' for 'to be built' and 'to do' for 'to be done' in English.
Meanwhile, some passive sentences in Hoyloy may be recast into 'to let' construction; for example:
22. [tzit=e-(_)/wi- hO_\gwa=/tze-//ho"|bo'] = [hO_\gwa=/tze_/tzit=e-(_)/wi-//ho"|bo']
'This seat lets me take (it), OK' or 'Let me take this seat, OK?'.
At this point, you probabally want to know about the conversion from passive construction to active construction for some sentences in Hoyloy. This can be done through change of word order and use of an objective case marker called [qa\-], as illustrated by the following examples:
23a. [tsat_a" lai-(_)/tau-teQ_/gwa=(+)e-(_)/tzi~+]
A thief came to steal my money;
23b. [tsat_a" qa_\gwa=(+)e-(_)/tzi~+ tau-teQ=(+/-)|ki']
The thief stole my money away;
23c. [gwa=e_(-)/tzi~+ hO_\tsat_a" tau-teQ=(+/-)|ki']
My monye was stolen away by the thief;
24a. [qi(E)Ng"tsat- b(/w)eQ"/lyaQ_/tsat_a"]
The police wants to catch the thief;
24b. [qi(E)Ng"tsat- qa_\tsat_a" lyaQ=(+/-)|dtyoQ'] or
[qi(E)Ng"tsat- lyaQ_dtyoQ_/tsat_a"]
The police caught the thief;
24c. [tsat_a" hO_\qi(E)Ng"tsat- lyaQ=(+/-)|dtyoQ']
The thief was caught by the police.
The pathway leading the morpheme of 'to let' to the function for passive construction may be better comprehended through examination of sentences 25 through 27 given below.
25. [tzit=haNg_/dtai_tzi' laNg-(_)\bo-(_)ai"/hO_\lan=(+)/tzai-ya~"] 'This matter, people
don't want (it) let us know (about it)'
'People don't want to let us know about this matter';
26. [laK=dti_\tO_ka= hit=dte"/qut=tau+ ki"hO_\qau=(+)a" qa-|ki'lO'] 'The bone thrown
on the ground let the dog grip (i.e. carry) itself away';
27. [li" dtoQ'|lo'ki' e-(_)\pun= dti,p=b(/w)eQ"\hO_\dtj= tzyaQ_lyau"|ki'lO'] 'The soup
with food residue that you have poured down is getting finished by pigs'
(lit. the soup lets pigs eat iitself)
In all these sentences the subordinate clauses introduced by the morheme [hO\-] of 'to let' are passive in structure. The passive construction used for a main clause seems to be an outgrowth of its subordination. In any case, it is the object, namely the patient, of an action that lets the agent act upon itself.
Besides, it is worth mentioning here that for passive construction the morpheme of 'to let' may be interpreted in a different perspective. For example, good will is usually supposed when a person lets someone in his or her house but not necessarily when someone 'is let in' unguardedly.
Yielding intended result of an action
Before our discussion of yet another key function derived from the morpheme of 'to let', let us take a look back to the examples at the beginning of this article. As found in these examples, the morpheme 'to let' implies some intention on the part of the agent of 'to let'. With this view in mind, we can see how this morpheme 'to let' emerges with the function of yielding intended result of an action as illustrated in the sentences given below.
28. [hO_\gwa=(+)/tzyaQ=(+/-)] 'Let me eat';
29. [hO_\gwa=(+)/tzyaQ_/hO_i-\bpa"] 'Let me eat so as to get myself satisfied';
30. [mai"/hO_i-\tzyaQ=(+/-)] 'Don't let him/her/it eat';
31. [mai"/hO_i-\tzyaQ_/syu(O)~-bpa"] 'Don't let him/her/it eat too much';
32. [gwa" hO_li=\tsi(E)Ng-] 'I let you wear' i.e. 'I provide you with clothing';
33. [li" dtyoQ_ai"/tsi(E)Ng_/hO_i-\syo=] 'You have to put on (enough) clothing so
as to keep yourself warm';
34. [in- dti_de=\qOng=(+)/tsat_a" dtyoQ_ai"/qa_in-\paQ"/hO_i-\bpai=(+)ka=]
'They are saying thieves must be beaten so that they become crippled'.
Take note that combination of the morpheme [hO\-] with the anaphor in the form of third person singular pronoun,
namely [i-] as examplified by sentences 30, 31, 33 and 34 may be casually contracted to the form of 'hO,\-',
which is avoided in this article for purpose of clarity.
-- For audio play of Hoyloy sentences 1 through 34, click here. --
Summary
Initially, the morpheme [hO\-] works as an introducer of a clause indicating the process of providing facility. Examples:
35. [hO_\gin=(+)na" tsut'|ki'] 'Let the kids (go) out';
36. [mai"/hO_\gin=(+)na" tsut-|ki'] 'Don't let the kids (go) out';
37. [Lucy b(/w)eQ"/hO_\gin=(+)na" tsut-|ki']
'Lucy wants to let the kinds (go) out';
38. [Lucy bo-(_)ai"/hO_\gin=(+)na" tsut-|ki']
'Lucy doesn't want to let the kinds (go) out'.
Next, this morpheme is turned into a benefactive case marker as illustrated in the sentence 39 and a verb similar in meaning to the English verb 'to give' as illustrated in sentence 40.
39. [bpa-bpa= b(/w)e=(+)/tzit_dtai-(_)/tiQ"be" hO-|gwa']
'Daddy bought a bicycle for (lit. to give it to) me'/
'Daddy bought me a bicycle';
40. [a-bu" hO_/gwa=/tzap_kO=]
'Mother gave me ten dollars/ten dollars to me'/
'Mother gave ten dollars to me'.
Take note that the slot next to the verb [hO.-] (to give) is constantly occupied by the receiver of what given in constrast to the English equivalent where the direct object of 'to give' may take this slot moving the receiver with a dative case marker 'to' to the hind position. Moreover, conforming to the Hoyloy syntactical structure for sentence 39, the morpheme [hO.-] may be treated either as an interminative verb or a benefactive case marker.
For developed usage of the morpheme meaning 'to give', let us look at sentences 41 and 42 given below.
41. [bpa-bpa=(-) qa,"dta~=(-)\ya=b(/w)e_/dtNg"|lai' hO_\ma-ma=(-) tzin-\hwan-(_)lo"]
'(That) Daddy hasn't returned so late as now gives (makes) Mom much worried';
42. [li" e_/hO_\laNg-(-)\tsyo'] 'You will give (make) people laugh (at you)'.
Furthermore the usage as illustrated by sentences 35 through 38 may become elaborated such as examplified by sentences 43 and 44 given below, whereby the morpheme [hO.-] emerges with the slightly varied meaning of 'to allow or give way to'.
43. [ho=(+)ti~= hO_\gin=(+)na" e_dtaNg"/tsut=ki=/tit=to+]
'Good weather allows kids to go out for play';
44. [hit=dtyau-(_)/qwa=(-) hO_\gwa=(+)/syu~_/ki=\tzit_e-(_)/laNg+]
'That song reminds me of someone'.
The usage illustrated by sentence 39 in turn leads to yet another usage where the morpheme [hO\-] introduces the intended result of an action in the form of an adverbial clause modifying the preceding verb. Examples:
45. [Gina teQ_/qin-na=(+)Rit=(+/-).e-(_)/bpo"tzwa" hO_\Judy kwa~']
'Gina took today's newspaper to let Judy read/for Judy to read';
46. [qa_\li=(+)e-(_)/i"qen' qONg=(+)/hO_\dtaQ_qe- tya~=(-)] 'Say your opinion for
everyone to hear'/'Speak out to let everyone hear your opinion';
47. [dtyoQ_\ai"/qONg=(+)/hO_i-\(*)tsi(E)Ng-tso"] '(You) must speak for making it
clear/you must speak clearly';
*This form is often contracted to 'hO,-' in colloquial discourse.
For the final part of this summary let us look at the passive construction using this morpheme. This usage is an offshoot of what illustrated by sentence 45 by bringing independent status to the subordinate clause. Examples:
48. [Qin-na=(+)Rit=(+/-).e-(_)bpo"tzwa" hO_\Judy kwa'//ho"|bo']
'Let Judy read today's newspaper, alright?'/lit.:
'Today's newspaper lets Judy read (itself), alright?';
49. [Qin-na=(+)Rit=(+/-).e-(_)/bpo"tzwa" ki'hO_\gin=(+)na" lyaQ"pwa'|ki']
'Today's paper was torn apart by (some) kid(s)'/lit.:
'Today's newspaper let (some) kid(s) tear (itself) apart';
50. [Qin-na=Rit=(+/-).e-(_)/bpo"tzwa" hO_,Ng-(_)(*)\teQ_tzau"|a']
'Today's newspaper was taken away by someone'/lit.:
'Today's newspaper let someone take (itself) away'.
* Contracted form of [hO_\laNg\+] (by some one/people).
Incidentally, as it is often the case in Hoyloy of which most morphemes are monosyllabic, there are a handful of other morphemes of same pronounciation as this one, such as: [hO-] as in [loQ_hO-] for to rain, [hO-] as in [hO_dti(E)Ng-] for doorsill, and [hO-] as in [bpo=(+)hO-] for protection. To keep them from confusing with one other when they are in citation form, it is necessary to differentiate them, as we did here, through illustrative indication. For the morpheme covered by this article, let us call it [hO\-] as in [hO_\i- ki'] for 'let him/her go'.
-- For audio play of Hoyloy sentences 35 through 50, click here. --
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